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METHANE RECOVERY FROM ANIMAL MANURES: THE CURRENT OPPORTUNITIES CASEBOOK Thus, the risk of microbial contamination from digested manure can be significantly reduced compared to untreated manure. Some pathogens, such as the hepatitis A virus, have a higher thermal threshold than others. In addition, the time and temperature required to eliminate or reduce microbial hazards in manure or other organic materials may vary depending on climate and the specific management practices of an individual operation. The toxic dinoflagellate, Pfiesteria piscicida, has been implicated as the primary causative agent of many major fish kills and fish disease events in estuaries, coastal areas, and aquaculture operations from the mid-Atlantic to the Gulf Coast. Fish kills caused by Pfiesteria usually occur in the warmest part of the year, and often precede low dissolved oxygen levels in the estuaries. Pfiesteria likely has been around for a long time (thousands of years) as a nontoxic predator on organisms like bacteria, algae, and small animals. Many experiments in the lab and field indicate, however, that human influences (e.g., excessive nutrient enrichment to poorly flushed estuarine ecosystems) have slowly shifted the environment to encourage Pfiesteria’ s fish-killing activity. Research is continuing to focus on the nutritional ecology of Pfiesteria. Field and laboratory research has established that it can be highly stimulated by both inorganic and organic nitrogen and phosphorus enrichments. Researchers are examining interactions between organic and inorganic sources of nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon in providing nutrition for Pfiesteria. 44 This work involves both laboratory and field experiments. In related research, there is documentation that Pfiesteria is stimulated by both human sewage and swine effluent. Researchers are continuing to characterize the effects of these human-derived nutrient sources on production and toxic activity of this dinoflagellate. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) or “mad cow” disease is a condition of the same type as Kreutzfeld-Jakob in humans or scrapie in sheep. Even though the latter two have been known for some decades, the causal agent was only discovered a few years ago when the danger of BSE became more apparent. The agent is not a microorganism, a fungus or a virus. It is a simple protein named a prion, which cannot even be called an organism. What is remarkable about prions is that they behave as infectious agents, but they are 100 45 The incubation period is extremely long, lasting several years to perhaps as many as 30 years in humans. times smaller than viruses and their mechanism of replication is unclear. Hence, the time between infection and disease outbreak makes it extremely difficult to spot the source of infection. Prions are extremely stable even under severe heat or chemical stress. Field trials showed that prions can survive as long as 6 years. The most secure way to destroy prions is either by incineration or by sterilization at 3 times 44 Burkholder, J. (1997). Impacts of the Toxic Dinoflagellate, Pfiesteriapiscicida, on Estuarine Food Webs. NC State University, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences. The report is available at http://ww-w2.ncsu.edu/unity/lockers/project/aquatic-botony/pfiest.htrnl. 45 http://www.sightings.com/health/prions.htm. Mad Cow & Kreutzfeld-Jacob Disease Prions Defined. The report is available at 2-24PDF Image | Methane Recovery from Animal Manures The Current Opportunities Casebook
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