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46 MICROPOWER: THE NEXT ELECTRICAL ERA ELECTRIFYING THE POWERLESS 47 TABLE 7 Urban and Rural Access to Electricity, Developing Countries, by Region, 1970 and 1990 Urban Rural Region 1970 1990 1970 1990 North Africa and Middle East Latin America and Caribbean Sub-Saharan Africa South Asia East Asia and Pacific All Developing Countries Total Served (millions) (percent) 65 81 14 35 67 82 15 40 28 38 4 8 39 53 12 25 51 82 25 45 52 76 18 33 320 1,100 340 820 Source: See endnote 101. sider the possibility that millions of people will migrate to overcrowded cities in search of modern electrical services. “Power poverty” is becoming as unsustainable in the South as power outages are in the North.103 Where electric power systems do exist, they are even more brittle than in industrial nations. Transmission and dis- tribution losses equal roughly 20 percent of power demand in India and Sri Lanka, more than 30 percent in Bangladesh and Nigeria, and over 50 percent in Benin and Haiti. In addition to placing a heavy burden on the environment, these systems impose a financial drain on government budgets, owing to their long lead times and inefficiency: infrastructure costs can represent as much as 40 percent of capital expenditures on new power capacity. For such regions, adding small-scale sys- tems near the places where power is to be used often makes the most economic and ecological sense. In India, power unreliability has led industries to invest in on-site generation, which now accounts for 12 percent of national capacity.104 Traditionally, rural electrification programs have focused on connecting villages and other remote regions to TABLE 8 Household Electricity Access, Selected Developing Countries1 Percentage of Households with Electricity Country Rural Urban Cote d’Ivoire 12.7 73.1 Ghana 4.3 61.7 South Africa Ecuador Jamaica Nicaragua Panama Nepal Pakistan Vietnam 27.2 74.6 74.8 97.4 69.3 86.1 33.1 92.3 48.7 98.1 8.9 88.6 58.3 94.6 38.8 87.9 1Surveys conducted from 1988 to 1997. Source: See endnote 102. a national grid owned and operated by a public utility. Where grid electrification is too expensive, generators run by diesel or biogas are commonly used. Thousands of decen- tralized, isolated diesel generators now serve villages and towns in countries like Ghana, Bolivia, Yemen, and Pakistan. These relatively inefficient generators carry high mainte- nance and fuel costs, frequently requiring the trucking of spare parts and fuels. Meanwhile, hundreds of millions of people without diesel generators spend roughly $20 billion each year on ad hoc solutions like kerosene lamps, candles, open fires, and batteries in regions that have some of the world’s largest indigenous renewable energy resources.105 The imperatives of economy and convenience increas- ingly make off-grid microhydro, solar PV, and small wind power systems attractive choices for rural electrification. In terms of technical performance, economic competitiveness, and reliability, these systems also compare favorably with the cost of extending transmission lines to unserved areas in many parts of the developing world. This is especially true in remotePDF Image | Micropower: The Next Electrical Era
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